Gendering the Nation Online Museum Exhibit
Created by the class of HIST 465 (Topics in Women's History) 2015-16
Queens University, Canada
Prostitution and the Nation
There is more to everything than meets the eye. ‘The oldest profession in the world’ is often used as a euphemism for prostitution. But why do we not refer to prostitution outright? Prostitution is often hidden as immoral and treated as a taboo subject, but even when it is not publicly acknowledged it affects the nation. During the Second World War, the United States paid great attention to the spread of venereal disease. Its effect on the war effort was especially emphasized to the point that the prostitutes themselves were almost entirely left out of the discussion. Prostitution as an institution became the focus of military concern. Sex outside of marriage was considered immoral at the time of the Second World War, but American couples were increasingly known to be having sex before they married, though this was never publicly discussed. The definition of ‘prostitute’ had to change. More women were being labelled prostitutes, even if they didn’t fit the traditional definition. It was in this way that prostitution affected not only the Second World War effort in the US, but also affected the women on the home-front. Prostitution impacted more than just the American nation, too. It affected – and continues to affect – the relationship between Japan and South Korea. Many Korean women were recruited against their will as “comfort women”, that is: prostitutes, which caused psychological hurt, some of which continues to this day. Wartime acts of sexual violence were used by the Japanese army in order to subdue the residents of occupied regions. The victims of this violence are also brought together by their shared experience, creating a sense of nation. In these wartime contexts, prostitution affects the nation and must be considered as an influence on modern conceptions of nation and nationalism, both in domestic and international environments.
“I advise you to be cautious, for I have heard you keep a disorderly house.”
-- Letter from Richard Hall, Assistant Poor Law Commissioner, Southwell to the Poor Law Commission […], February 12, 1839
The Victorian Era is often seen as one of repressed sexuality. This perceived stricter morality does not mean that prostitution did not exist. The deposition of Mary Cane is evidence of this fact. Having been approached by a Relieving Officer who offered her one shilling in exchange for sexual favours, Ms. Cane came forward to report this occurrence. A more interesting facet of this case is that after the Officer offered to pay Ms. Cane for her services and she refused, he warned her to be careful as he had heard rumours that she kept a brothel. The public perception of prostitution at the time of this deposition is very similar to that during the Second World War: even in a situation where the woman was approached by the man, she was held responsible for moral disobedience by engaging in prostitution and was given a warning while the man received no consequence for seeking these services. This encouragement of the male use of prostitutes and the condemnation of prostitutes themselves seen in this deposition continued into the Second World War and influenced the nation and nationalism during that conflict. Mary Cane’s testimony is one step along the path of prostitution as a public concern.
Letter from Richard Hall, Assistant Poor Law Commissioner, Southwell to the Poor Law Commission forwarding a signed statement, taken on oath, from Mary Cane [Mary Cann], pauper of Lambley with regard to the charge of a relieving officer behaving improperly towards her. February 12, 1839. Folios 271-272. National Archives, Kew, UK.
The Second World War was a time of great change in society. Increasingly, couples were believed to be having premarital sex, which was generally accepted as long as it remained out of the public eye and a private matter between the man and woman involved. During the Second World War many men enlisted in the Armed Forces, naturally including some who engaged in premarital sex. With this enlistment of sexually active men, sexual health became more important to the public because any personal weakness could directly affect the war effort. Almost a third of venereal disease cases came from soldiers’ steady sexual partners. These sexual relations which had previously been tolerated in private were now seen as a threat to the national war effort. The spread of disease had to be stopped, so women having sex with soldiers were increasingly depicted as a sort of ‘prostitute’ in an attempt to discourage any relations that could harm the soldiers’ health. Presumably, few women would continue sexual relations with soldiers if this meant public vilification, which was done in the hope that soldiers would be exposed less often to venereal disease. Less frequent exposure maintained soldiers’ health, so they could fight more effectively in the war. Prostitution and this wartime environment worked together to vilify ordinary women in order to protect the American war effort.
“Enemy Agent” first appeared during the Second World to warn American soldiers of the dangers of venereal disease to the war effort. Unusually, there are no women depicted, not even a humanised representation of the nation. The emphasis of the poster is instead on men’s involvement in the war effort, as seen in the poster’s focus on production. The enemy agent referred to in the title of the poster is Venereal Disease, which works alongside the patriotic employee on the “U.S. War Effort” machinery. No one, though, realises that this enemy agent exists; to prevent this unseen enemy from crippling the war effort, each man had to remain healthy in order to do his best work. As disease increasingly became an issue, it came to be more explicitly mentioned in propaganda, as seen here. Wartime production could not be put at risk by employees’ disease, so efforts had to be made to contain these risks, including the regulation and restriction of prostitution, the presumed source of disease.
Batchelor, C. D. Enemy Agent, U.S. War Effort, Venereal Disease. Date unknown, but from World War Two-Era. National Museum of Health and Medicine, Otis Historical Archives.
This is a propaganda film from the Second World War made to dispel soldiers’ fears of what was happening on the Home Front while they were away fighting. One predominant fear in the video is that the girlfriend is going out with every man she meets while her soldier is away. This shows how sexualised women had become, even to the extent that a woman seen as respectable at any other time has become a sort of prostitute who sleeps with any man available during the war. This stereotype is countered by the revelation that she has joined the Women’s Army Corps and is an important part of the war effort. The suggestion that women would become semi-prostitutes if they were not busy with the war effort would encourage women to join the Armed Forces to defend their country, increasing their sense of nationalism.
Blanc, Mel, Frank Tashlin. Private SNAFU: “The Home Front”. US Army Cartoon. 1943. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vGmIhhMi8cg
This propaganda poster “Boys, your Sweetheart” was first published in the United States during the Second World War. It depicts a feminised United States warning two members of different military branches of the consequences of their sexual actions. The inclusion of different branches suggests that venereal disease was a universal military problem. Significantly, the only potentially sexual figure – the female US – is desexualised, implying that soldiers must not be tempted away from their patriotic duty by a beautiful woman. Her representation also implies that the only true victim of venereal disease is the nation as a whole. The exclusion of prostitutes from this poster acknowledges, too, that the issue at hand has evolved from the actual use of prostitutes to the spread of venereal disease. Even so, prostitution and venereal disease continued to be closely intertwined and were both linked to the American military. Both had to be avoided in order to keep soldiers as healthy as possible and to keep the nation safe from the Axis powers.
Batchelor, C. D. Boys, your sweetheart, your wife or your parents may never know it if you contract a venereal disease - but I'll know it and I'll suffer from it. Date unknown, but from World War Two-Era. National Museum of Health and Medicine, Otis Historical Archives.
This prophylactic kit was easily accessible to American soldiers at their post exchange. It contained ointment, a cleaning cloth and cleansing tissue, as well as instructions as to each’s use. To avoid the spread of venereal disease, propagandised to come almost exclusively from encounters with prostitutes, soldiers were encouraged to use the contents of their prophylactic kits themselves after sex or to go to a prophylactic station where trained personnel would assist them. Videos were also available to soldiers informing them how to properly use the contents of this kit. The fact that these kits were widely available and that Army Regulations existed mandating their use demonstrates that venereal disease was a concern in the Armed Forces and was something against which the military needed to work in order to preserve the efficiency of the war effort. Strong soldiers led to a strong nation and the military needed to preserve this strength.
“Venereal Disease and Treatment during WW2.” WWII US Medical Research Centre. 2016.
Prostitution as a wartime consideration was also visible in Asia during the Second World War. Much like prostitutes in the Western world, the existence of comfort women was rarely discussed, even when Japanese war crimes were examined in the decades after the conclusion of the Second World War. This forced prostitution damaged Japan’s national pride, so the international community was encouraged to look the other way when it came to these sexual war crimes. Sex was used as a tool for Japanese military control of conquered people. The Japanese military threatened men that if they did not offer women for sexual services to the Japanese army, a man’s closest female relatives would be taken by force for this purpose. Prostitution allowed for control of the conquered male population by fear, and of the female population by shame. Few women would willingly admit they served – or had served – as comfort women, giving the Japanese military unlimited power and control over these women who feared the exposure of their sexual acts. This use of prostitution not only affected international Asian relations during the Second World War, but continues to affect diplomatic relations between these neighbouring countries. Apologies and official resolution of this issue are necessary for genuine reconciliation in Asia. Prostitution affected not only wartime Japan but also affects the modern country. This forced prostitution has also brought women around the world together in initiatives against the exploitation of women in war. In this Asian context, prostitution greatly influences the concept of nation and nationalism.
This artefact is one of the Comfort Stations used by Japanese soldiers during the Second World War. The building itself reveals details about the Japanese military’s use of prostitution to subjugate foreign populations. The doors alternate with small windows, giving an indication of how narrow each room was. The narrowness makes this building look more like a glamourous barn for cattle or even a prisoner complex than a residential building for women. Given the design of the building, few women could leave their room without entering the central courtyard, meaning that they received very little privacy. In addition, these women would be ashamed to admit what they were doing, meaning the Japanese military controlled them emotionally, too. The comfort women were therefore quite easy to control physically and emotionally, showing how their forced prostitution was used not only to satisfy the needs of Japanese soldiers, but also as a way to control the women of the Japanese-occupied territories.
“Military Sexual Slavery.” Canada ALPHA (Association for Learning & Preserving the History of WWII in Asia).
This image taken by American soldiers after the Battle of Songshan in Yunnan Province portrays comfort women shortly after they were released in 1944/5 from their sexual slavery. The women look exhausted and unhappy, and their clothes are dishevelled. Their appearance alone reveals the harsh reality these women faced as a result of their forced prostitution by the Japanese Army during the Second World War. Nevertheless, there was a bond of shared experience created by prostitution, as seen in the gaze connecting the two women on the right; the elder woman looks upon the pregnant Pak Young-sim affectionately and with a sense of concern, showing the sense of comradeship in this relationship. This image demonstrates that prostitution forged nationalist ties among its victims, crossing political boundaries in Asia.
“Asian Women’s Fund. “The Life in Comfort Stations.” Digital Museum: The Comfort Women Issue and the Asian Women's Fund. Date not given
The clothes of these women were not unusual for the time, but may seem somewhat unusual for Korean prostitutes. When one thinks of prostitutes, one generally thinks of suggestive, revealing clothing. These women, though, are modestly dressed and would not stand out in a crowd of contemporary Asian women. These ordinary clothes reveal that prostitution could be forced upon any woman. These clothes could belong to one’s sister, mother, aunt, or daughter, making the Japanese military’s system of forced prostitution even more controlling; it took ordinary women and made them sexual slaves to the military. These clothes, too, are not traditional Korean dress, showing that these women’s cultural identity has been forcibly taken from them, much as their freedom has been taken by the Japanese military. These comfort women are forced to dress in a Western fashion embraced by Japan and they are denied their traditional white Korean clothing. Their clothing reveals the extent to which they have been forcibly introduced into Japanese culture and to which their Korean culture has been denied to them. This forced prostitution physically denied women their nationalism, demonstrating the subtle influence of prostitution on the nation.
“Asian Women’s Fund. “The Life in Comfort Stations.” Digital Museum: The Comfort Women Issue and the Asian Women's Fund. Date not given
Connyoung Jennifer MOON. “Comfort Women”: One Last Cry. Film. Arirang TV.
This image is the only one in this collection to show the traditionally feminine domestic sphere in relation to prostitution. The woman is presumably nude as there is no delineation between any possible clothing and her neck rising to her hairline. The Rising Sun of Japan is pouring in through the window and is seeing this woman in a very vulnerable state. Presumably, only a husband would have seen a woman naked in her bedroom, suggesting that Japan’s Rising Sun has taken the role of sexual dominator over this woman. She has also been made anonymous because no distinguishing features are visible on her body; her face is hidden, meaning that she could be any woman in Japanese-occupied territory. The only features visible are sexualised: the curvature of her slender back and her loose black hair. Like the Rising Sun of the image, the Japanese military took advantage of women in a vulnerable state, demonstrating how prostitution was used during wartime to subdue and subjugate foreign occupied populations.
“Kotler, Mindy, Image by Robert G. Fresson. “The Comfort Women and Japan’s War on Truth.” New York Times. November 14, 2014.
Lei Gui-Ying was a young woman during the Second World War who became a comfort woman accidentally. She was away from home working for a man who housed comfort women when the Japanese soldiers came and took advantage of her because she was unable to defend herself. This experience marked the rest of her life. She began sharing her wartime experiences because she felt that speaking of her feelings would help her healing process. Society at large, though, was not ready to discuss the existence of comfort women, hindering this process of healing. Her experience as a prostitute continues to influence her life and her nationalist feelings towards Japan because she was never given an apology before her death. It can be assumed that other women feel similarly to Ms. Lei and so international relationships in Asia are still affected by wartime prostitution, showing the influence of prostitution on the nation.
“Military Sexual Slavery.” Canada ALPHA (Association for Learning & Preserving the History of WWII in Asia).
Prostitution is rarely a topic of public conversation when discussing nationalism. Prostitutes are infrequently given credit for the role they play in strengthening the bonds between citizens and the nation, like in the United States throughout the Second World War, or in Asia as prostitution was used to support the expanding Japanese empire. Venereal disease and sex have long been associated with war. Even though prostitution is closely tied in the public mind to both, explicit links are infrequently made. Campaigns against the spread of venereal disease became an anchor for nationalist sentiment in the US during the war, demonstrating the strong links between prostitution as an institution and the concept of nationalism. Americans were strongly encouraged to strengthen their nation and their war effort by avoiding prostitutes – who now included even the all-American girl-next-door – and any diseases they carried. In Japan, too, prostitution was tied to nationalism. The Japanese military used prostitution to subdue occupied populations by threatening men with removal of their female relatives and by controlling women through the shame of forced prostitution. The Comfort Woman system allowed the Japanese military to not only fill the needs of its soldiers, but to spread and strengthen their empire. As in the US, prostitution was used as a tool to strengthen nationalism, but unlike the American military, the Japanese accepted and encouraged this trade as a way to consolidate their military power. In both countries, prostitution was used to strengthen nationalism, showing that even though it may continue to be a taboo subject in most societies, prostitution plays an important role in the development of nation and nationalism.
“A little while ago, I learned that there was a Korean comfort woman survivor coming to Nanjing to point out the former site of a comfort station. Her braveness encouraged me to stand up and fight for justice against the Japanese imperialism too.”
-Testimony of Lei Gui-Ying, former comfort woman; 2006