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Chinese-Canadian Men and Women in the "Promise Land": The Establishment of a Dual National Identity

Canada has a shameful history of racism and discrimination towards multiple groups who were not considered real “citizens” of the nation. Such an example is Chinese-Canadians, who immigrated to Canada looking for work. The first group came during the 1880s to help construct the Canadian Pacific Railway in British Columbia for cheap pay. When the railway was completed, the Chinse immigrants were left with no work and viewed as useless to the government leading to several political acts being passed to stop Chinese immigration to Canada. 

Having a “national identity” was a new concept to China. The new economic and social networks with the West passed on this idea of nationalism that Chinese-Canadians struggled with. In Canada, they were viewed and feared as an “other,” limiting their connection with their culture. Discrimination based on several gendered “oriental stereotypes” damaged their relationship with Canada as a nation, affecting their perception of being a Canadian citizen. Chinese-Canadian men and women were judged according to these stereotypes, limiting their agency and role in Canadian society. However their strong sense of hope for the “Promise Land” (a name given to Canada in the early 20th century) and honourable relationship with their native culture helped establish a place of belonging within Canada by the mid-20th century. This place of belonging was contributed to by both Chinese-Canadian men and women, although stories of the women are scarce to find. This exhibit hopes to explain these contributions to the Chinese-Canadian national identity in order to balance the stories and help provide new insights on who these people were.

Chinese-Canadian Men

Chinese-Canadian men are known as the foundation of the Chinese communities. They immigrated to Canada to find work to support their families and ended up having to sleep in tents until they established small areas known “Chinatowns.” Despite their hard work, Chinese men were viewed as having inferior masculinity and only useful as cheap labour. The Canadian government had hoped that the Chinese immigrants could assimilate into the Anglo-Canadian lifestyle, but soon discovered how stubbornly they clung to their own cultured principles and customs. Asian stereotypes were also developing, bringing reason to deny any more Chinese immigrants into the country. These stereotypes were used to attack Chinese men’s honour and reputation and made living peacefully even a secluded Chinese area impossible. These men still held their ground, protecting Chinese traditions and doing what they could to hopefully one day bring their families to Canada. They challenged the blatant discrimination and harsh stereotypes and paved the way for new Chinese immigrants to settle.

Photo of Chinese-Canadian Men Constructing their Homes, c. 1908 

Contradicting the stereotype of Asian men having inferior masculinity, Chinese-Canadian men were burdened with the responsibility of constructing their homes. In the early 19th century, only Chinese men were able to immigrate over, so they were expected to establish a sturdy home for their family to eventually live in. When building these homes, multiple men had to take shelter in one as there was limited space in the Chinatowns. Although they had limited supplies and tools, these buildings were assembled with the hope and passion for a new home in Canada.

View of chinese building. January, 1908. Cumberland Museum and Archives. Cumberland, British Columbia. Photograph from: www.flickr.com/photos/cumberlandmuseum/sets/72157629431696157

Newspaper Article Describing a Riot and Strike at a British Columbian Mill, May 13, 1915. This article describes how one Chinese worker at a mill struck the owner after he refused to give the worker a raise in his pay. Chinese labour workers were legally paid significantly less than white workers during the early 20th century, making business owners more likely to hire Chinese men. However many white owners stated that if both races were paid the same, they would rather hire white men. This emphasizes the racist view white Canadians had and that the only use Chinese-Canadians had was cheap labour. This article is only one of few declaring stereotypical opinions on Chinese men.

“Riot And Strike At The Sidney Shingle Mills.” Sidney and Islands Review, May 13, 1915. Sidney Museum and Archives. Sidney, British Columbia.

Chinese Immigration Act, 1923.

Chinese Immigration was outlawed with the passing of the Chinese Immigration Act, 1923. This act restricted the immigration and rights of any “persons of Chinese origin or descent.” It was clear that the Canadian government wanted to keep Canada white, as it was a new nation. Since the majority of the Chinese-Canadians already established as citizens at this point were men, there was a distinct gender imbalance in the Chinese communities and the populations in Chinatowns struggled to increase. The act also placed a huge strain on Chinese-Canadian’s relationship with Canada as a nation and its white citizens. It inspired racist judgements and actions towards the Chinese communities that produced stereotypes and maintained the act. The various contributions of Chinese-Canadians during World War II motivated the act’s termination in 1947.

Library and Archives Canada. An Act Respecting Chinese Immigration, 1923. Ottawa: SC 13-14 George V, Chapter 38, 1923. Wellington St, Ottawa.

Groom’s Coat, c. 1970.

This traditional bridegroom’s coat was crafted in Taiwan and imported to Toronto, where one of the major Canadian Chinatowns is. Traditionally Chinese wedding costumes were very important to the culture of Chinese-Canadians as marriage and family is the foundation of nationalism. Chinese marriages were an event to celebrate fertility and children and many customs were based on wishing the couple lots of babies. In order to maintain order and tradition, such simple rituals were essential to preserve. According to Chinese marriage practices, grooms are able to wear a variety of colours. This coat is a dark blue and has a humble symbol, “shou” on the jacket, meaning “long life.”

Bridegroom's coat. c. 1970. 74-11.1. Canadian Museum of History. Gatineau, Quebec.

Chinese-Canadian Women

Before 1947, there were very few female Chinese-Canadians. Western governments had this negative idea that immigrant Asian women were all sex workers and so a head tax was established in 1885 to limit what “kind” of Chinese immigrants were accepted. When families were finally allowed to bring their daughters over, the populations and quality of Chinatowns increased drastically. However, since there women had come directly from China, they had no connection or experience with the country and its culture. They were expected to take care of the home while the men were out working, according to the traditional Chinese gender order. There was a strict social separation that was conveyed through gendered clothing and objects. Women were expected to wear and use certain items to express not only their femininity, but also their Chinese culture. As men were the ones outside and in direct in contact with the Anglo-Canadian society, Chinese women at home had to actively participate in and show their culture so not to lose any connection with their homeland. Since these women were isolated, their stories were not shared until the 21st century. These stories however reveal a remarkable degree of agency and struggle to gain an education and enter the work world. Many women defied the Chinese gender order and Asian stereotypes and redefined the role of the Chinese woman.

Bride’s Dress, c. mid-20th Century

Although certain objects distinguished social class traditionally, there are three events that each Chinese individual is honoured on: birth, death, and marriage. Chinese culture mixed with Western traditions, shifting the ceremony of marriage in Canada for Chinese-Canadians. Marriage was decided by only the two individuals involved and was usually performed in a church. This dress is based on the traditional wedding costume and filled with symbolism. Although men’s dresses could be a variety of colours, the bride’s dress was usually red to express good fortune upon the couple. Bride’s clothing was also vastly decorated and traditionally feminine. The phoenix on the front symbolizes beauty and suggests that the bride is like royalty on her wedding day. There is a distinct pressuring of not only femininity for the bride but for motherhood as many gifts, such as rice and chopsticks, signify reproduction for the couple.

Skirt. n.d. 74-10.1. Canadian Museum of History. Gatineau, Quebec

Women’s Tradition Fan, c. 1916 

Historically, Chinese fans expressed high social status, but they have evolved into works of art, status symbols, props for theater and dance, romantic gifts, and memorials of the dead. Fans are used by both men and women, however female fans usually are more decorated and have at least 30 “ribs” between folds. This particular fan was given as a gift in 1916 to Mildred Farrow by her domestic servant, Fong. The fan was used as part of a costume for a Japanese comic opera called, “The Mikado.” Items such as fans and theatre performances were a way of holding on to their native culture and connecting with other people in Chinatowns. This fan also represents the distinction between the sexes as feminization was shown just through the number of ribs.

Fan. c. 1915. CHL_1988.027.005. Chilliwack Museum and Archives. Chilliwack, British Columbia.

Personal Interview with Susan Chew, December 31, 2009

Susan Chew describes her life growing up with immigrant parents in Victoria, BC. Susan describes how she spent most of her time with her mother doing daily chores around the family farm. This interview expresses how most Chinese-Canadian women were expected to be homemakers and had to learn how to do typical “female” errands properly. These errands were not simple or easy. Susan also expresses the importance of family to help out around the home and to aid in finances. Traditionally, males are viewed more highly as they had more opportunities and more physical capability to support the household and to carry on the family name. Susan also describes her surprisingly limited experiences with discrimination since she grew up in a rural environment. It was not until she travelled to urban cities did she encounter severe racism. In moving to urban centres, Chinese-Canadians also had more access to Chinese customs, like Susan had more opportunity to learn traditional Chinese dance.

Lum, Julia. Interview with Susan Chew. Personal Interview. Vancouver, December 31, 2009.

http://www.mhso.ca/chinesecanadianwomen/en/database.php?c=11

War

CThe contributions of Chinese-Canadians during World War I and II changed their lives forever. These contributions shifted ideas of Asian men and women and triggered the end of the Chinese Immigration Act, 1923. The immense racial intolerance and hatred they faced however, caused huge debates about whether or not Chinese-Canadians should willingly participate in the World Wars. Only 200 volunteering for the Canadian army during World War I and that number rose to 600 two decades later. World War I did not arise much change of racial intolerance or unemployment, but this drastically changed after World War II. Both Chinese-Canadian men and women upheld patriotic attitudes and fought for recognition and honour. New opportunities opened up, allowing Chinese-Canadians to vote and get professional training as doctors, lawyers, and engineers.

"We always try to call World War Two our double victory — victory over Germany and Japan, but victory for … the Asians at home who finally became full citizens.”

Mary Ko Bong

Photo of Chinese-Canadian Soldiers Awaiting Repatriation to Canada, c. November, 1945.

Despite the shameful discrimination the Chinese-Canadians faced, many were still willing to put their lives on the line during World War II. The volunteer numbers increased when the war moved to Hong Kong; these men wanted to use their new citizenship to help their country of origin. Unfortunately, many racist policies were in place, restricting the placement of Chinese soldiers – they were not allowed into the air force or navy. However, when the war refocused to the Pacific Theatre, these policies were annulled. The great contributions of the Chinese-Canadian volunteers eventually lead to guarantee of full citizenship for all Chinese-Canadians. These soldiers in the photo are only a select few of those who changed the lives of Chinese-Canadians forever.

Hermiston, Karen M. Chinese-Canadian soldiers from Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada,

who served with the South East Asia Command (SEAC), awaiting repatriation to Canada, No.1 Repatriation Depot (Canadian Army Miscellaneous Units), Tweedsmuir Camp, Thursley, England, 27 November 1945.  November, 1945. Library and Archives Canada. 

Photo of Mary Ko Bong Fixing Binoculars, c. 1943 

Of the 600 Chinese-Canadian recruits for the army during World War II, 7 were women: Mary Ko Bong, Peggy Lee, Mary Laura Mah, Helen Hoe, Edna Silaine Lowe, Lila Wong and Jean Suey Zee Lee. They joined the non-combat Canadian Womens’ Army Corps (CWAC) and the St John’s Ambulance Brigade and learned multiple trades, including nursing, mechanical repairs, and teletyping. “I sort of surprised them,” Mary Ko Bong declared, stating that she was the first of her family to enlist. She volunteered the moment she could and graduated a very difficult program in optics instrument mechanics. Mary also entertained troops with her singing, dancing, and jazz. Mary actively put herself in the spotlight, challenging the gender order and the cultural stereotypes of Asian females. 

Mary Ko Bong at work. c. 1943. Chinese Canadian Museum Society. Vancouver, British

Columbia. Photograph from: http://www.ccmms.ca/

Chinese-Canadians Celebrating V-J Day, c. August 1945.

August 14th, 1945 declared the official end of the Second World War and was a huge day of celebration for both white and Chinese-Canadians. There had been constant war between China and Japan for years, so the Chinese communities in Canada were incredibly happy to finally hear of their surrender. Parades filled the streets of Vancouver and Toronto that proudly expressed Chinese culture and customs. Both men and women had distinct roles in the parades that paralleled their roles in their daily lives as well. These parades also communicated the major part Chinese volunteers played during the war to help the Allied powers win.

V-J Day parade, Toronto. August, 1945. Turofsky Alexandra Studio, Toronto. http://www.mhso.ca/chinesecanadianwomen/en/index.php

Page created by the class of HIST 465, Queen's University, 2016

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