Gendering the Nation Online Museum Exhibit
Created by the class of HIST 465 (Topics in Women's History) 2015-16
Queens University, Canada
Women at Work During the First World War
This exhibit showcases the incredible contributions made by the women of the Allied nations during the First World War. With millions of men mobilized between the years of 1914 and 1918, women were left to fill the positions in factories, businesses, and agricultural settings left vacant by soldiers. Women also took up positions on the frontlines as nurses and in military units in order to secure the victory of the Allies. These contributions were all the more meaningful because women were taking on roles and responsibilities which had had been almost exclusively held by men up to this point. By working on farms, in factories, and on the frontlines, women showed their intellectual, physical, and martial capabilities – all of which were traditionally thought to be the unique capabilities of men. The First World War was an incredible moment for women as they eradicated barriers and dispelled commonly held attitudes toward gender roles. While this exhibit will celebrate the progress made by female workers during the war, it will also examine the opposition faced by women both during and immediately after the war. Although women were had proved themselves capable of doing “men’s work,” they nonetheless faced skepticism, scrutiny, and sometimes open hostility in their roles. In the years immediately following the war, women were unable to sustain the momentum that they had gained. It would take time to change the deeply entrenched notions of gender roles, especially in the social and economic climate of the postwar period.
The Edwardian Woman
In the prewar period, Edwardian custom dictated that a woman’s place was in the home. Their responsibilities included caring for their husbands and children, managing the household, and seeing to other domestic duties. Men, on the other hand, were responsible for earning money to support their family, whether it be as a skilled or unskilled tradesman or a professional of some kind. The man’s realm is often referred to as the public sphere, while women occpied the private sphere. These social customs had existed (and to a certain extent, still exist) in the western world for centuries and were generally understood to be the direct result of physiological differences between men and women. Not all women, however, conformed to the Edwardian ideal. Women of the lower classes, who could not afford the life of parlours and petticoats, were forced to enter the workforce in order to survive. These women worked predominantly in roles associated with the private sphere such as domestic service, dressmaking, or in textile factories. Another group of women who opposed traditional gender roles were the suffragists. In the decades leading up to the First World War, women in the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States campaigned for the right to vote and to participate in politics. Although these movements were very progressive, the arguments made by suffragists were often couched in conservative terms. One argument proposed that women deserved a voice in politics because they were the mothers of the race. Another argument referenced the notion that women were naturally more virtuous than men and could therefore cleanse the corrupt political system. Although women’s suffrage was put on the backburner during the First World War, suffragists re-emerged at war’s end with all the more ammunition: women had not only contributed immensely to the war effort, but they had proved themselves capable of taking on men’s roles in their absence.
On the Home Front
This photograph shows a woman welding in a wartime armaments factory. Often called “munitionettes,” these women were responsible for the production of war weaponry and ammunition. While women had held positions in factories prior to the war, they primarily worked in feminine industries such as cotton, hatmaking, and tailoring. Engineering was a field previously reserved for men, as it was considered to require mental and physical capabilities beyond women. Furthermore, training women in skilled trades seemed a useless investment of time and money since most would marry and become homemakers after only a few short years of working. A shortage of both male workers and shells during the First World War, however, provided women with the opportunity to step into the positions vacated by men. Women’s roles in munitions factories were somewhat paradoxical. While traditionally viewed as paragons of peace and creators of life, these women were responsible for producing weapons of death and destruction.
“Welding.” Photograph. 1915. From Getty Images. http://www.gettyimages.ca/detail/news-
photo/woman-munitions-worker-welds-at-a-work-bench-in-an-news-photo/2629582 (accessed March 22, 2016).
The Munitionettes
A Day In The Life Of A Munitions Worker. 35mm film. War Office Cinema Committee, 1917.
From Imperial War Museums. Adobe Flash, http://www.iwm.org.uk/history/a-day-in-the-life-of-a-munitions-worker
In this oral testimony, Elsa Thomas recalls the male hostility which she encountered while working at the Woolwich Arsenal in London in 1916. Men were afraid, she says, of women taking away their jobs and lowering wages. This sentiment was not unique to British men. Male workers at the Empire Manufacturing Company in Canada, for example, went on strike for 23 days in opposition to the employment of female operators during the war. In the end, the male protestors agreed to the implementation of new machinery instead. Evidently, some men would have preferred the idea of working side-by-side with a machine than with a woman. Male hostility stemmed from a number of underlying tensions. Since women received lower wages than men, male workers feared that employers would hire female employees in order to save money on wages. Attitudes concerning women’s proper role in society may have also contributed to male resentment. Traditional gender roles dictated that a woman’s place was in the home (the private sphere), while a man occupied the workplace (the public sphere). By taking on jobs in factories and businesses, women were invading the male space.
This video clip is from a longer film titled, A Day In The Life Of A Munitions Worker, made in 1917 at the Chilwell Arms Factory in Nottinghamshire. This particular segment focuses on the health and safety measures taken to protect munitionettes from toxins. While gloves and masks were certainly better than no protection at all, workers were still affected by the toxic materials they worked with. TNT, for example, could cause severe symptoms such as a yellowing of the skin which led to these workers being nicknamed “canaries.” Work may not have been very physically demanding, but the risk of explosions, accidents involving machinery, and prolonged exposure to toxins led to a number of tragic deaths, illnesses, and injuries. In response, the Imperial Munitions Board implemented a number of measures – including regulated hours, canteens, and restrooms – to improve working conditions for women. Women’s health was of particular concern to the government during wartime since women were responsible for producing not only munitions, but the next generation.
The Women's Land Army
Thomas, Elsa. “Male Hostility.” Interview with Lilian Annie Miles. Sound Recording. IWM, 1976.
From Imperial War Museums.
This photograph shows a member the Women’s Land Army ploughing a field on a British farm. Formed in response to the shortage of male farmworkers in 1917, the Women’s Land Army saw over 23,000 British women working the land before October 1919. This kind of work was more physically demanding than factory work (though perhaps less dangerous) and many farmers were resistant to the idea of employing female workers. Once on the land, however, women proved themselves capable of holding their own, surprising not only their employers, but themselves. The woman in this photograph is shown ploughing a field, a task described by Oliver Hockin in Two Girls on the Land (1918): “to bring round the horses just to the right point, does not really need much strength, but it does need judgment and some experience, and is therefore, given the opportunity, as much within the reach of a woman’s powers as of a man’s.” Wartime proved to women and to their employers that knowledge and skill could often replace physical strength. And with that realization, women tackled one of the hurdles blocking their path to equal opportunity.
“Land girl ploughing a field.” Photograph. From Imperial War Museums.
On the Front Lines
Nursing Sisters
This uniform would have been worn by Canadian Military Nurses during the First World War. These women were often more educated than average women of the time and were typically from the middle class. Applicants to the Nurses Corps were given four to six weeks of training at the Halifax military hospital. After an oral and written examination, they were officially admitted and received the rank of lieutenant. While their actual authority was quite limited, the fact that these women held a military rank was incredibly significant – as junior officers, they would have been a higher rank than some of their patients. It is interesting to note, however, that the nurse’s uniform still suggests femininity (note the white veil resembling a nun’s habit), even to the detriment of comfort or practicality. The uniform is very representative of the myth of the nurse and her many different facets: she was a military officer, a paragon of virtue, and the “rose of No Man’s Land” all at the same time.
“Nurse’s veil.” Clothing. Ca. 1910-1950. Nurse Sarah Phillips Collection. Museum of Health Care at Kingston, Ontario.
Women's Military Units
Although nursing was traditionally viewed as part of the female realm (since it aligned with the maternal qualities of caring for and nurturing others), wartime nurses found themselves occupying a space traditionally occupied by men: the battlefront. The women in this photograph are wearing masks to protect themselves from the toxic gases used for the first time during World War One. War provided young women the rare opportunity to travel far from their homes to experience the adventure of war as untrained, voluntary nurses or as members of the Nursing Corps. But along with adventure, came hardship and danger. Nurses faced bombings, attacks, vermin, and disease right alongside the soldiers they tended to. Although nurses were supposed to maintain a distance from the battlefield, such precautions were not always possible. Working in unhygienic conditions and often lacking appropriate supplies, nurses on the frontlines made an immeasurable contribution to the war effort, proving themselves to be indispensable players in this traditionally male setting.
“WW1 First Aid after gas attack.” Photograph. 1917. From Alamy. http://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-2-g55-g1-1917-4-ww1-first-aid-after-gas-attack-photo-history-world-20729512.html
This photograph shows Field Marshal Lord John French inspecting the Glasgow Battalion of the Women's Volunteer Reserve (WVR) in 1915. Unable to enlist as soldiers in the military, many women signed up for voluntary organizations, such as the WVR, as a way to defend their countries. As the war progressed, the British government recognized a need for support behind the frontlines. Calling on the female volunteers of the WVR to step up to the plate, the British government created three new women’s services: the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC), the Women's Royal Naval Service (WRNS) and the Women's Royal Air Force (WRAF). Over 90 000 women enrolled in these services, taking on responsibilities such as clerical work, driving, and repairing military equipment. Much like their male counterparts, these women practiced drills and marching, as seen in this photograph.
“The Women’s Volunteer Reserve on the Homefront.” Photograph. 1915. From the Imperial War Museums.
This recruitment poster is advertising the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps (later named Queen Mary’s, after its patron). The poster is an intriguing representation of the precarious positon held by the women of the auxiliary corps. Note, for example, the military-style uniform which is very similar to the khaki uniforms of the armed forces. The reaction to these units was varied. While some admired the women for their patriotism, others sneered at them for “playing solider.” By wearing masculine uniforms and practicing drills, these women were seen as transgressing the bounds of traditional gender roles. As a result, these women were seen as unfeminine and often had their morality called into question. The subtitle of the poster, “The girl behind the man behind the gun,” emphasizes the supportive role held by these women. Not quite soldiers, but not quite civilians, the women of the WAAC held a unique position somewhere in between. The corps was disbanded in 1921, demonstrating that it was created as a temporary, emergency measure.
“Queen Mary's Army Auxiliary Corps.” Lithograph. 1918. From Imperial War Museum.
At War's End
This excerpt from the Union Government’s publication, Women’s War Talks to Women, comments on the Wartime Elections Act of 1917. This act was a major breakthrough, as it was the first time that women were able to vote in a federal election. This act extended the vote to the mothers, sisters, and wives of soldiers and was coupled with the Military Voters Act which gave the vote to nurses and military personnel. It should be noted that while these two acts are sometimes portrayed as a result of women’s war work, there were in fact a number of other factors which more directly led to its passage. In the midst of the Conscription Crisis, it is generally understood that Prime Minister Robert Borden’s Union government passed these acts in an attempt to secure votes in the 1917 election. Indeed, many soldiers and their female relatives supported Borden’s plans for conscription, leading to his re-election. The title of this particular article, “Should Women Keep out of Politics?” makes reference to the general sentiment of the time which associated politics with the male sphere. It is interesting to note that Kathleen Bowker herself attributes the newly gained vote to “the sacrifices their men folk have made” rather than to the work which women dedicated to the war effort.
Women's War Talks to Women. Ottawa: Union Government Publicity Bureau, 1917. From Early Canadiana Online.
A Vote For the Women
The Return of the Veterans
This cartoon expresses the worry and resentment felt by many men returning home from war to find women holding their jobs. Two soldiers are depicted observing a coquettish woman at work. The man identified as “Corporal” asks his companion “What will you do after the war if you can’t get your old job back?” The young private replies, “Marry the girl who’s holding it down.” This short exchange reveals much about the sentiments and customs of the time. Firstly, it demonstrates the concern among soldiers about employment. At war’s end, there was a major influx of workers as veterans looked to return to work, only to find the jobs they once held being occupied by women. The war had turned everything upside down, but it was now time for a return to normalcy. Women had been temporary replacements and were now expected to return home. This expectation was rooted in the belief that men were the primary workers. It also stems from the notion that women only worked until they got married. This tradition is referenced in the private’s comment – if he married the female worker, she would be expected to leave her job in order to take on her real job of managing the home.
“Corporal: What Will You Do…?” Illustration. 1918. From The Newberry. http://dcc.newberry.org/collections/world-war-i-in-us-popular-culture
Losing Ground
The armistice in 1918 held the promise of peace and a much-desired return to normalcy. The social structure of the Edwardian period had been shaken tremendously during the war, and it didn’t take long for reactionaries to set about restoring the old order. Women were pressured to vacate the jobs they had taken up during the war, so that veterans could find work. Those women who attempted to hold onto their jobs were frowned upon as selfish and unappreciative, “‘with no thought for the fact that she is occupying a post which means the bread and butter of some discharged soldier and his dependents” as one postwar newspaper put it. Women who had held positions in the military either as nurses or members of the WAAC, WRNS, or WRAF were discharged from their roles after war. Mothers and wives were discharged first, so that they could reassume their position in the home as quickly as possible. Although some women made an attempt to create a peacetime women’s reserve, the plan never materialized. Aside from a general interest in peace, the plan’s failure can also be attributed to the fear of how a permanent women’s military force would disrupt home life.
It has been noted by a number of scholars that the members of female military units, along with female workers, received little recognition after the war. The war widow and the grieving mother often took centre stage in war memorials and ceremonies, meaning that the contributions of working women melted into the background. The contributions of women to the war effort were not, however, all for naught. Women had made a point during the war, challenging traditional gender roles and proving their physical, intellectual, and martial capabilities. Armed with the newly acquired franchise, women could now embark on the struggle for equal opportunity. But it would not be a short or easy road. With the postwar call for normalcy and the Great Depression on the horizon, women were thanked for their efforts and then gently nudged back into the home. It would take another world war and many more decades to regain the territory that women had won for themselves during the First World War.